Yangdong Folk Village

Yangdong Folk Village (Yangdong Village of Gyeongju) is a traditional village from the Joseon Dynasty. The village is located in Gangdong-myeon, sixteen kilometers northeast of Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea, along the Hyeongsan River.
Mt. Seolchang stands to the north of the village. The village is designated as Important Folklore Materials No. 189 by the South Korean government.
The size, degree of preservation, numerous cultural assets, traditionalism, beautiful natural setting all contribute to the importance of Yangdong Village. It is also a fine example of the yangban (Korean aristocracy) lifestyle and Neo-Confucian traditions.
The village is listed by the South Korean government with UNESCO as a World Heritage site with Hahoe Folk Village in 2010.

 Overview

A man in hanbok, traditional Korean costume weaving a basket in Yangdong village

The village was founded by Son So (孫昭 1433-1484). The household of the Wolseong Son clan was placed on an auspicious site according to Korean theories of pungsu (geomancy). Son So and his wife, the daughter of Yu Bok Ha had a daughter who married Yi Beon of the Yeogang Yi family. The marriage produced one of the eighteen sages of Korea, Yi Unjeok. The village of Yangdon has continued since its auspicious beginning in the 15th century.

Although some of the village is unoccupied today, the overall the village has over 160 tile-roofed and thatched-roof homes built throughout the dense forest. Fifty-four historic homes over 200 years old have also been preserved. The village preserves folk customs as well as traditional buildings of traditional Joseon Dynasty architecture. Seobaekodang is the primary home of the Wolseong Son Family. Mucheomdang, is the primary house of the Yeogang Yi family (Treasure No. 411). Hyangdan is National Treasure No. 412. Ihayangjeon and Simsujeong pavilions, and the Ganghakdang village school are also notable structures of the village as well as Gwangajeong (Treasure No. 442) and Sonsoyeongjeong (Treasure No. 1216).

The village follows the topography of the mountains and valleys and is shaped like an auspicious Hanja character. This arrangement has been carefully preserved. The homes of the Wolseong Son and Yeogang Yi clans, as well as their descendants' homes are located on the high ground of the mountains and valleys. The lower class homes, characterized by their thatched roofs were built on lower ground. The village's organization highlights the severe social stratification characteristic of Joseon Dynasty society. Prince Charles visited Yangdong in 1993.

dolmen

A dolmen, also known as a portal tomb, portal grave, or quoit, is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of three or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone (table), although there are also more complex variants. Most date from the early Neolithic period (4000 to 3000 BC). Dolmens were usually covered with earth or smaller stones to form a barrow, though in many cases that covering has weathered away, leaving only the stone "skeleton" of the burial mound intact.

It remains unclear when, why, and by whom the earliest dolmens were made. The oldest known dolmens are in Western Europe, where they were set in place around 7000 years ago, at the same time as the ancient civilisations of Egypt, India, and the Middle East. Archaeologists still do not know who erected these dolmens, which makes it difficult to know why they did it. The most widely accepted theory is that all dolmens are tombs or burial chambers. Human remains, sometimes accompanied by artifacts, have been found in or close to them, which could be scientifically dated. There is however no firm evidence that even this theory is correct. It has been impossible to prove that these archaeological remains date from the time when the stones were set in place.

Dolmen sites

Crucuno dolmen in Plouharnel, Brittany, France.

Lancken-Granitz dolmen, Germany

Asia

Korea

The largest concentration of dolmen in the world is found on the Korean peninsula. With an estimated 35,000 dolmen, Korea alone accounts for nearly 40% of the world’s total.
The largest distribution of these is on the west coast area of South Korea.
Three specific UNESCO World Heritage sites at Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa by themselves account for over 1,000 dolmen.
The Korean word for dolmen is goindol (hangul:고인돌). Serious studies of the Korean megalithic monuments were not undertaken until relatively recently, well after much research had already been conducted on dolmen in other regions of the world. After 1945, new research is being conducted by Korean scholars.

Korean dolmen exhibit a morphology distinct from the Atlantic European dolmen.
In 1981 a curator of Seoul's National Museum of Korea, Gon-Gil Ji, classified Korean dolmen into two general types: northern and southern. The boundary between them falls at the Bukhan River although examples of both types are found on either side. Northern style dolmens stand above ground with a four sided chamber and a megalithic roof (also referred to as "table type"), while southern style dolmens are normally built into the ground and contain a stone chest or pit covered by a rock slab.

Korean dolmen can also be divided into 3 main types: the table type, the go-table type and the unsupported capstone type. The dolmen in Ganghwa is a northern-type, table-shaped dolmen and is the biggest stone of this kind in South Korea, measuring 2.6 by 7.1 by 5.5 metres. There are many sub-types and different styles. Southern type dolmen are associated with burials but the reason for building northern style dolmen is uncertain.

Due to the vast numbers and great variation in styles, no absolute chronology of Korean dolmen has yet been established. It is generally accepted that the Korean megalithic culture emerged from the late Neolithic age, during which agriculture developed on the peninsula, and flourished throughout the Bronze Age. Thus, it is estimated that the Korean dolmen were built in the first millennium BC.

How and why Korea has produced so many dolmen are still poorly understood. There is no current conclusive theory on the origin of Korea's megalithic culture, and so it is difficult to determine the true cultural character of Korean dolmen. A few northern style dolmens are found in Manchuria and the Shandong Peninsula. Off the peninsula, similar specimens can be found in smaller numbers, but they are often considerably larger than the Korean dolmen.
 It is a mystery as to factors caused this culture to flourish so extensively only on the Korean peninsula and its vicinity in Northeast Asia.

Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites

The Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites are the location of hundreds of stone dolmen which were used as grave markers and for ritual purposes during the first millennium BCE when the Megalithic Culture was prominent on the Korean Peninsula. The sites were designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000. Korea is said to contain more than 40% of the worlds dolmen, which are mostly concentrated in these three sites.


The megalithic stones are invaluable because they mark the graves of the ruling elite. Pottery, comma-shaped jewels, bronzes, and other funerary artifacts have been excavated from these dolmen. The culture of the people during this time can be gleaned from the evidence left by the dolmen. Additionally, the stones show how stone was quarried, transported, and used to build dolmen.

Dolmen in Korea have been dated to the seventh century BCE in locations such as Gochang and the practice ended around the third century BCE. The dolmen culture is linked with the Neolithic and bronze cultures of Korea.
Excavation at the sites did not begin until 1965. Since, then multiple digs have been sponsored and an extensive program of inventory and preservation has been initiated by the Korean government.

Description

Dolmen are generally classified in two types in East Asia. The table/northern-type and the go-board/southern-type. In the former, four stones were positioned to make the walls of a box and were capped by a stone which lay on top of the supports. The latter is characterized by underground burial with stones that supported the capstone.

Gochang Dolmen Site

This group of dolmen are the largest and most varied. They are known as the Jungnim-ri dolmens and are centered in Maesan village, Gochang County, North Jeolla province.
The dolmen were built from east to west at the foot of a series of hills at an altitude of 15 to 50 meters/49 feet to 164 feet. Generally, the capstones of the dolmens are around 1 to 5.8 meters/3.2 to 19 feet in length and may weigh up to 225 tons. 442 dolmen have been documented and classified based on the size of the capstone.
This group is believed to have been constructed around the seventh century BCE.
The Gochang Dolmen Site is listed as Historic Site #391.

Hwasun Dolmen Sites

Found in Hwasun County, South Jeolla, these dolmen are also located on the slopes of hills and follow the Jiseokgang river. The Hyosan-ri group contains 158 dolmen and the Dasin-ri group, 129. These dolmen are less well preserved than the Jungnim-ri group. The quarry where some of the stones of this group were carved out has been located. This group is dated to around the sixth or fifth century BCE.

Ganghwa Dolmen Sites

These dolmen are located on Ganghwa Island, Ganghwa County, Incheon. They are located on the slopes of mountains and are thus higher in elevation than their counterparts. These dolmen are believed to be earliest ones made because the dolmen groups in Bugeun-ri (부근리, in Hajeom-myeon) and Gocheon-ri (고천리, in Naega-myeon) resemble the early dolmen. However, this has not been conclusively proved.
A notable dolmen at Ganghwa is a northern/table-type dolmen where it was believed ancestral rites were performed. It is the biggest stone in South Korea and measures at 2.6 × 7.1 × 5.5 meters. This probably weighs between 150 and 225 tons.

Taejo of Joseon

Taejo of Joseon (October 11, 1335 – May 24, 1408; r. 1392–1398), born Yi Seong-gye, whose changed name is Yi Dan, was the founder and the first king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea, and the main figure in overthrowing the Goryeo Dynasty. He was posthumously raised to the rank of Emperor in 1899 by Gojong, the Gwangmu Emperor, who had proclaimed the Korean Empire in 1897.
Taejo's father Yi Ja-chun was a minor Mongol official, but his ethnicity was Korean. Taejo joined the Goryeo army and rose through the ranks, seizing the throne in 1392. He abdicated in 1398 during the strife between his sons and died in 1408.

Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty

The Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty refers to the 40 tombs of members of the Korean Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910). These tombs are scattered in over 18 locations across South Korea. They were built to honour and respect the ancestors and their achievements, and assert their royal authority. The tombs have been registered as a UNESCO World Heritage site since 2009.

Structure of the Tombs

The royal tombs can be divided into three main parts:

The part around Jeongjagak

It is the meeting point between the dead and the living.The area around Hongsalmun gate is the space for the living.

The area just past the gate

This is the space between the earthly and the holy. This is the area where the spirits of the kings and queens meet their earthly worshippers. This area also contains the Jeongjagak shrine, the Subokbang, and the Suragan buildings.

The sacred ground of the grave mounds

This area also includes the wall, and the other stone structures.


Other Important Structures of the Tombs

Muninseok Statues of scholars placed on the left and right sides of the Jangmyeongdeung lantern.

Muinseok Statue of a soldier said to be guarding the king and is placed below the Muninseok.

Seongma A horse statue.

Yegam It is located on the left-side corner behind the Jeongjagak and is used for burning the wrtten prayes after a burial service.

Bigak A building which has a stone monument where the names of the king and the queen are written at the front, while at the back was written the list of the king's accomplishments.

Jeongjagak This is where memorial services are held.

Chamdo These are two stone-covered paths that leads to the Jeongjagak. The higher path is called Sindo (The Path of the Gods), while the lower path is called Eodo (The Path Of the King). Only the Eodo path can be used by visitors in accordance to Korean custom.

Subokbang This is the living quarter of the officer guarding the tomb.

Suragan This is where the food for the memorial services are brought and prepared.

Baewi This is where the king and memorial service officials knelt in honor of the deceased king. It is also called Panwi or Eobaseok.

Hongsalmun This is the gate with two red cylindrical pillars.

Tombs

The tombs are classified into two types. Tombs of the kings and queens and those posthumously granted the title of king or queen, were interred in neung-type tombs. Crown princes and their wives, as well as the parents of royalty, were interred in won-type tombs. The royal tombs are scattered over 18 locations, with many of them located 40 kilometers from Hanseong (present-day Seoul). Indeed, the Jangneung tomb is in Yeongwol, Gangwon-do, while the Yeongneung tombs are in Yeoju, Gyeonggi-do. Tombs were made for individuals as well as family groups. There are 40 neung-type and 13 won-type tombs, thus creating a total of 53 royal tombs.


Joseon-era royal tombs followed the guidelines outlined in Chinese Confucian texts, such as the Book of Rites (Li Ji) and the Rites of Zhou (Zhou Li). Many factors went into consideration when deciding the location of a tomb, such as the distance from Hanyang, the distance in relation to other royal tombs, the accessibility of the location, and Korean traditions of pungsu (geomancy). The tomb construction also took into account traditional burial rituals of Korea and the natural environment.

There now follows a list (in alphebatical order) of the individual (or clusters of) tombs. There are two more royal tombs from the Joseon Dynasty in Kaesong, North Korea, namely Jereung (제릉) (the tomb of Queen Sinui, who was King Taejo's first consort) and Hureung (후릉) (the tomb of King Jeongjong and Queen Jeongan).

Seolleung and Jeongneung (선릉&정릉)

Jeongneung: Seolleung and Jeongneung are in the south of Seoul. Jeongneung is not to be confused with its namesake on the southern slopes of Bukhansan, also in Seoul. The tombs are in a park, the entrance of which is 340 metres from Seolleung Station.

Yeongjo

Yeongjo (31 October 1694 – 22 April 1776, r. 16 October 1724 – 22 April 1776) was the twenty-first king of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. He was the second son of Sukjong by Royal Noble Consort Suk of the Haeju Choi clan, succeeded his older brother Gyeongjong.

Reign

King Yeongjo was a deeply Confucian monarch, and is said to have had a greater knowledge of the classics than his officials. During the reign of Yeongjo and his grandson Jeongjo, Confucianization was at its height, as was economic recovery from the wars of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.


The king is also famous for having treasured Park Mun-su, who was appointed as Amhaeng-eosa (암행어사) or a secret governmental inspector. Park, who had earned great merit in putting down Yi In-ja's rebellion, went around the nation arresting corrupt local officers in the name of the king.

The only significantly dismal incident during Yeongjo's reign was the death of his son, Crown Prince Sado. Sado most likely suffered from mental illness. He was accused of randomly killing people in the palace and being a sexual deviant. Yeongjo could not by court rules kill his son by his own hand and on a hot August day in 1762, Sado was ordered to climb into a large wooden rice chest. After eight days, Sado died of suffocation.

Fourteen years later Yeongjo died, and Sado's son, Jeongjo, became king. The early part of his years were marked by political intrigues and fear of court officials that were afraid of Jeongjo taking revenge on them for petitioning the punishment that caused the death of his father, Crown Prince Sado. Yeongjo was buried in the dynastic tombs at Donggureung.

Yeongjo was the first to take action against Roman Catholic activities in the country. By the 18th century, Catholicism was beginning to acquire a following especially in the Gangwon and Hwanghae provinces. In 1758, Yeongjo officially outlawed Catholicism as an evil practice.
He is buried with his second wife at the royal tomb of Wonneung (원릉, 元陵) in the city of Guri.

King Jeongjo

King Jeongjo (28 October 1752 – 18 August 1800) was the 22nd ruler of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. He made various attempts to reform and improve the nation of Joseon. He was preceded by his grandfather King Yeongjo (1724–1776) and succeeded by his son King Sunjo (r. 1800–1834). He is widely regarded as one of the most successful and visionary rulers of Joseon along with King Sejong.

Early life

He was the son of Crown Prince Sado, who was put to death by his own father, King Yeongjo. His mother, Lady Hyegyeong, wrote an autobiography, The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyeong (한중록, 閑中錄), detailing her life as the ill-fated Crown Princess of Korea. This collection of memoirs serves as a significant source of historical information on the political happenings during the reigns of King Yeongjo, King Jeongjo and King Sunjo.

When he was the Crown Prince, King Jeongjo met Hong Guk-yeong (홍국영, 洪國榮), a controversial politician who first strongly supported Jeongjo's accession and toiled to improve the king's power, but ended up being expelled because of his desire for power.
Jeongjo spent much of his reign trying to clear his father's name. He also moved the court to the city of Suwon to be closer to his father's grave. He built Hwaseong Fortress to guard the tomb. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Accession

The era before his rule was in disorder as his father was killed by royal decree of his own father, King Jeongjo's grandfather. King Yeongjo's ultimate decision to execute Prince Sado was greatly influenced by other politicians who were against Prince Sado. After King Yeongjo's death and on the day that Jeongjo became the King of Joseon, he sat on his throne in the throne room and looked at everyone and said, "I am the son of the late Crown Prince Sado..." This was a bold statement that sent shivers down the spines of all the politicians who were complicit in his father's death.

During his accession, he also issued a royal decree that his mother, Lady Hye Gyeong, be a Dowager Queen since his father, her husband, was supposed to be the King before him. She thus became the Queen Dowager, the widow of Crown Prince Sado. From then on, King Jeongjo experienced many turbulent periods but overcame them with the aid of Hong Guk-yeong.

Renaissance

King Jeongjo led the new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty. It was initially stopped by continuing the policy of Yeongjo's Tangpyeong rule. He tried to control the politics of the whole nation to advance and further national progress.

He made various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishing Kyujanggak (규장각), a royal library. However, its purpose was to improve the cultural and political stance of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run the nation. He also spearheaded bold new social initiatives, opening government positions to those who were barred because of their social status.

Jeongjo had the support of the many Silhak scholars including Jeong Yak-yong, Yu Deuk-gong, Pak Ji-won and Pak Je-ga, and in addition the Silhak scholars supported Jeongjo's regal power. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture.

Death

He was known to history as an innovative person, in spite of his high political status in Joseon. He died suddenly at the age of 48 in 1800 under mysterious circumstances, without seeing his lifelong wishes realized by his son, Sunjo. There are many books regarding the mysterious death of Jeongjo, even today.
He is buried with his wife at the royal tomb of Geolleung (건릉, 健陵) in the city of Hwaseong.

Goryeo

Goryeo, also known as Koryŏ (Korean: 고려; 918–1392), was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. This kingdom later gave name to the modern state of Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the leader of the Joseon dynasty in 1392. The Goryeo dynasty expanded its borders to present-day Wonsan in the north-east (936–943) and the Amnok River (993) and finally almost the whole of the Korean peninsula (1374).

Two of this period's most notable products are Goryeo celadon pottery and the Tripitaka Koreana — the Buddhist scriptures (Tripitaka) carved onto roughly 80,000 woodblocks and stored, and still in, Haeinsa. Subjects and officials of the Goryeo dynasty also created the world's first metal-based movable type in 1234; the oldest surviving movable metal type book, the Jikji, was made in 1377.

In 668, Silla conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with alliance of Tang Dynasty, but by the late 9th century it was tottering, its monarchs being unimaginative and pressed by the power of powerful statesmen. Many robbers and outlaws agitated and in 900 Gyeon Hwon revolted from Silla control in the Jeolla region as Hubaekje and next year Gung Ye revolted from the northern regions as Hugoguryeo (Taebong). A son of a regional lord, Wang Geon went into Hugoguryeo as a general.

Hugoguryeo fell when Wang Geon revolted and killed Gung Ye in 918; Silla was overpowered by Goryeo and Hubaekje and surrendered to Goryeo in 935. In 936 Hubaekje surrendered and Goryeo started an unbroken dynasty that ruled Korea for 474 years.
By the 14th century Goryeo had lost much of its power under Yuan Dynasty influences. Although King Gongmin managed to free his kingdom from the Mongol influence, the Goryeo general Yi Seonggye revolted and overthrew the last king of Goryeo, King Gongyang in 1392. Gongyang was killed in 1394.

Etymology
The name "Goryeo" is derived from "Goguryeo", one of the ancient Three Kingdoms of Korea, which changed its name to "Goryeo" during the reign of King Jangsu of Goguryeo (in the 5th century). The English name "Korea" derives from "Goryeo."

History

Wang Geon (877-943), the founder of Goryeo dynasty

Background

Silla, which had accomplished an incomplete unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in 668, weakened and lost control over local lords during the end of the 9th century. The country entered a period of civil war and rebellion, led by Gung Ye, Gi Hwon, Yang Gil, and Gyeon Hwon.
Gung Ye established Hugoguryeo (meaning "Later Goguryeo", renamed Taebong and Majin). Gyeon Hwon established Hubaekje (meaning "Later Baekje"). Together with the declining Silla, they are known as the Later Three Kingdoms.

Founding
Wang Geon, a descendant of a merchant family of Songdo (present-day Kaesŏng), joined Taebong but overthrew Gung Ye and established the Goryeo Kingdom and Dynasty in 918.
Goryeo adopted a Silla-friendly Hubaekje-hostile stage in the later Three Kingdoms, but in 927, Goryeo was defeated by Hubaekje in present-day Daegu. Wang Geon lost his best supporters in the battle. For 3 years after the battle, Hubaekje dominated the Later Three Kingdoms but after a defeat at the Andong in 930, Hubaekje lost his power.
The Later Three Kingdoms era ended as Goryeo annexed Silla in 935 and defeated Hubaekje in 936. Wang Geon moved the capital to his hometown Kaesǒng, and ruled the Korean peninsula as the first Emperor of Goryeo. Wang Geon married a daughter of the Silla royal family and let most nobles keep their lands. Even though Wang Geon ruled the united nation for only 7 years before his son took the reign after his death, the succession was not challenged.

Power struggles
The House Yi of Inju (Korean: 인주 이씨, Hanja: 仁州李氏) married the emperors from Munjong to the 17th emperor, Injong. Eventually the Yis gained more power than the monarch himself. This led to the coup of Yi Ja-gyeom in 1126. The coup failed but the power of the monarch was weakened; Goryeo underwent a civil war among the nobility.
In 1135, Myo Cheong argued in favor of moving the capital to Seogyeong (present day P'yŏngyang). This proposal divided the nobles of Goryeo in half. One faction, led by Myo Cheong, believed in moving the capital to Pyongyang and expanding into Manchuria. The other one, led by Kim Bu-sik (author of the Samguk Sagi), wanted to keep the status quo. Myo Cheong failed to persuade the emperor and rebelled against the central government and made a country named Daebang, but failed and was killed.

Military regime
In 1170, a group of army officers led by Jeong Jung-bu, Yi Ui-bang and Yi Go launched a coup d'état and succeeded. Emperor Uijong went into exile and Emperor Myeongjong was placed on the throne. Effective power, however, lay with a succession of generals who used an elite guard unit known as the Tobang to control the throne: military rule of Goryeo had begun. In 1179, the young general Gyeong Dae-seung rose to power and began an attempt to restore the full power of the monarch and purge the corruption of the state.

However, he died in 1183 and was succeeded by Yi Ui-min, who came from a nobi (slave) background. His unrestrained corruption and cruelty led to a coup by general Choe Chungheon, who assassinated Yi Ui-min and took supreme power in 1197. For the next 61 years, the Choe house ruled as military dictators, maintaining the emperors as puppet monarchs; Choe Chungheon was succeeded in turn by his son Choe U, his grandson Choe Hang and his great-grandson Choe Ui. On taking power, Choe Chungheon forced Myeongjong off the throne and replaced him with Emperor Sinjong, but after Sinjong died he forced two further monarchs off the throne until he found the pliable Emperor Gojong.

Mongol invasions

Relocated Goryeo pagoda

In 1231, Mongols under Ögedei Khan invaded Goryeo, following the aftermath of joint Goryeo-Mongol forces against the Khitans in 1219. The royal court moved to Ganghwa Island in the Bay of Gyeonggi, in 1232. The military ruler of the time, Choe U (최우), insisted on fighting back. Goryeo resisted for about 30 years but finally sued for peace in 1259.

Meanwhile, the Mongols began a campaign from 1231 to 1259 that ravaged parts of Gyeongsang and Jeolla provinces. There were six major campaigns: 1231, 1232, 1235, 1238, 1247, 1253; between 1253 and 1258, the Mongols under Möngke Khan's general Jalairtai Qorchi launched four devastating invasions in the final successful campaign against Korea, at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean peninsula.

Civilian resistance was strong, and the Imperial Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Korea won several victories but the Korean military could not withstand the waves of invasions. The repeated Mongol invasions caused havoc, loss of human lives and famine in Korea. In 1236, Gojong ordered the re-creation of the Tripitaka Koreana, destroyed during the 1232 invasion. This collection of Buddhist scriptures took 15 years to carve on some 81,000 wooden blocks, and is preserved to this day. In March 1258, the dictator Choe Ui was assassinated by Kim Jun. Thus, dictatorship by his military group was ended, and the scholars who had insisted on peace with Mongolia gained power. Eventually, the scholars sent an envoy to the Mongols, and a peace treaty was contracted between the Mongol Empire and Goryeo. Some military officials who refused to surrender formed the Sambyeolcho Rebellion and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of the Korean peninsula.

The treaty permitted the sovereign power and traditional cultures of Goryeo, and implied that the Mongols had no plans of controlling Goryeo. The Mongols annexed the northern areas of Korean peninsula after the invasions and incorporated them into their empire. After the peace treaty with Goryeo, the Mongols planned to conquer Japan by allying with Goryeo troops again; in 1274 and 1281 two campaigns to Japan took place; however, it failed due to a heavy storm (called the Kamikaze) and strong military resistance.

Baekje

Baekje or Paekche (Hangul: 백제; Hanja: 百濟, Korean pronunciation: [pɛk̚tɕ͈e]) (18 BCE – 660 CE) was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jumong and So Seo-no, at Wiryeseong (present-day southern Seoul). Baekje, like Goguryeo, claimed to succeed Buyeo, a state established in present-day Manchuria around the time of Gojoseon's fall.
Baekje alternately battled and allied with Goguryeo and Silla as the three kingdoms expanded control over the peninsula. At its peak in the 4th century, Baekje controlled most of the western Korean peninsula, as far north as Pyongyang, and may have even held territories in China, such as in Liaoxi, though this is controversial. It became a significant regional sea power, with political and trade relations with China and Japan.
In 660, it was defeated by an alliance of Silla and Chinese Tang Dynasty, submitting to Unified Silla.

History

Expansion

Korea in 375, The greatest territory expansion of Baekje.

During the reign of King Goi (234–286), Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. In 249, according to the ancient Japanese text Nihonshoki, Baekje's expansion reached the Gaya confederacy to its east, around the Nakdong River valley. Baekje is first described in Chinese records as a kingdom in 345. The first diplomatic missions from Baekje reached Japan around 367 (According to the Nihon Shoki : 247).

King Geunchogo (346–375) expanded Baekje's territory to the north through war against Goguryeo, while annexing the remaining Mahan societies in the south. During Geunchogo's reign, the territories of Baekje included most of the western Korean Peninsula (except the two Pyeongan provinces), and in 371, Baekje defeated Goguryeo at Pyongyang. Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted Chinese culture and technology. Buddhism became the official state religion in 384.
Baekje also became a sea power and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the Japanese rulers of the Kofun period, transmitting continental cultural influences to Japan. The Chinese writing system, Buddhism, advanced pottery, ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks throughout their relationship.
During this period, the Han River basin remained the heartland of the country.

Ungjin period

In the 5th century, Baekje retreated under the southward military threat of Goguryeo, and in 475, the Seoul region fell to Goguryeo. Baekje's capital was located at Ungjin (present-day Gongju) from 475 to 538.
Isolated in mountainous terrain, the new capital was secure against the north but also disconnected from the outside world. It was closer to Silla than Wiryeseong had been, however, and a military alliance was forged between Silla and Baekje against Goguryeo.
Most maps of the Three Kingdoms period show Baekje occupying the Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces, the core of the country in the Ungjin and Sabi periods, although at some points in time, Baekje controlled territory in China that ringed the Bohai Sea.

Sabi period

In 538, King Seong moved the capital to Sabi (present-day Buyeo County), and rebuilt his kingdom into a strong state. From this time, the official name of the country was Nambuyeo ("Southern Buyeo"), a reference to Buyeo to which Baekje traced its origins. The Sabi Period witnessed the flowering of Baekje culture, alongside the growth of Buddhism.
Under pressure from Goguryeo to the north and Silla to the east, Seong sought to strengthen Baekje's relationship with China. The location of Sabi, on the navigable Geum River, made contact with China much easier, and both trade and diplomacy flourished during his reign and continuing on into the 7th century.
In the 7th century, with the growing influence of Silla in the southern and central Korean peninsula, Baekje began its decline.

Foreign relations

Relations with China

Ambassador of Baekje in China

In 372, King Geunchogo paid tribute to the Jin Dynasty of China, located in the basin of the Yangtze River. After the fall of Jin and the establishment of Song Dynasty in 420, Baekje sent envoys seeking cultural goods and technologies.
Baekje sent an envoy to Northern Wei of Northern Dynasties for the first time in 472, and King Gaero asked for military aid to attack Goguryeo. Kings Muryeong and Seong sent envoys to Liang several times and received titles of nobility.
Tomb of King Muryeong is built with bricks according with Liang's tomb style.